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Saddam Hussein
Saddam in 1979, after taking office
5th president of Iraq
In office 16 July 1979 – 9 April 2003
Prime Minister	Himself Sa'dun Hammadi M. H. Zubeidi Ahmad Samarrai Himself
Vice President	Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri Taha Yassin Ramadan
Succeeded by	Jay Garner Director of CPA Jalal Talabani (As president)
Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council
In office 16 July 1979 – 9 April 2003
Prime Minister of Iraq
Secretary General of the National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
In office 1979 – 1991 1994 – 2003
Regional Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Regional Branch
Vice President of Iraq
Member of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Regional Branch
Personal details
Education	Cairo University University of Baghdad
Alma mater	Cairo University University of Baghdad
Military service
Branch/service	Iraqi Armed Forces
Battles/wars	Second Iraqi–Kurdish War Iran–Iraq War Gulf War 1991 Iraqi uprisings Iraq war (POW)  2003 invasion of Iraq

Saddam Hussein Abd-al Majid al Tikriti (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician, military officer and revolutionary who served as the fifth and longest president of Iraq from 1979 until his overthrow in 2003, prime minister from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003 and previously served as Iraq's vice president from 1968 to 1979. Saddam was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later its Iraqi regional branch. Ideologically, he was an Arab nationalist and espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and socialism, while the policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as Saddamism.

Born in an Arab Sunni Muslim family near Tikrit, Saddam did his schooling from Baghdad. He joined the Ba'ath Party in 1957, and later in 1966 the Iraqi and Baghdad-based Ba'ath parties. Saddam played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr in 1968. During his tenure as vice president, he nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the economy of Iraq and provided free heathcare and education. He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War and the Algiers Agreement which settled territorial disputes along the Shatt al-Arab with Iran. Saddam made numerous international trips and represented Iraq on diplomatic meetings and summits. After al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, he formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Arab Sunnis, a minority that made up about a fifth of the population.

Upon taking office, Saddam further consolidated power and purged the ruling party. He ordered the invasion of Iran in 1980 in a purported effort to capture the Arab-majority Khuzestan province, and end Iran's attempts to export its revolution to the Arab world and overthrow his regime and fought the war. It ended in a stalemate after nearly eight years in a ceasefire, after a million people were killed and Iran suffered economic losses of $561 billion. At the end of the war, Saddam ordered the Anfal campaign against Kurdish rebels who sided with Iran, recognized by Human Rights Watch as an act of genocide. Later, he accused his former ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraq's oil reserves and invaded the country in 1990, initiating the Gulf War, which ended in Iraq's defeat by a multinational coalition led by the United States in 1991. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. Saddam brutally suppressed the uprisings led by Kurds and Shias, which sought to gain independence and overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq.

In March 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq, accusing Saddam of possessing weapons of mass destruction and having links with Al-Qaeda. Following the fall of Baghdad in April, Saddam lost his control over Iraq. On December 2003, he was captured by American forces near Tikrit and was interrogated at Baghdad Airport. He was handed over to the Iraqi High Tribunal in 2004, where he was tried and sentenced to death for crimes against humanity — the 1982 massacre of Shi'as in the town of Dujail. Saddam was executed by hanging on 30 December 2006, on the eve of Eid al-Adha, a move widely condemned due to its timing on a holy event.

A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam was the subject of a cult of personality. Many Arabs regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism, opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine, and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Conversely, many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a tyrant responsible for numerous acts of repression, mass killing and other injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's government was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis. His government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and totalitarian, and by some as fascist, although the applicability of those labels has been contested.

Saddam was an Arab nationalist

He previously served as Iraq's vice president from 1968 to 1979 and also served as prime minister from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. A leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later its Iraqi regional branch, Saddam was an Arab nationalist and ideologically, he espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, while the policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as Saddamism.

Born in the village of Al-Awja, near Tikrit in northern Iraq, to a Sunni Arab family. He joined the Ba'ath Party in 1957, and later in 1966 the Iraqi and Baghdad-based Ba'ath parties. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. During his tenure as vice president, Saddam nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War and the Algiers Agreement which settled territorial disputes along Shatt al-Arab with Iran. Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Arab Sunni Muslims, a minority that made up about a fifth of the population.

In 1979, upon taking office, Saddam purged the Ba'ath Party. He ordered the invasion of Iran in 1980 in a purported effort to capture Iran's Arab-majority Khuzestan province, and end the Iranian attempts to export its revolution to the Arab world and overthrow his regime. The Iran–Iraq War ended in a stalemate after nearly eight years in a ceasefire, after a million people were killed and Iran suffered economic losses of $561 billion. At the end of the war, Saddam ordered the Anfal campaign against Kurdish rebels who sided with Iran, recognized by Human Rights Watch as an act of genocide. Later, Saddam accused his former ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraq's oil reserves and invaded the country, initiating the Gulf War, which ended in Iraq's defeat by a multinational coalition led by the United States. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. Saddam brutally suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shias, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq.

In 2003, a United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda. After the quick coalition victory in the war, the Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, his trial took place in 2004 under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 Dujail massacre of over 140 Shia Muslims and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed on 30 December 2006.

A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated Iraq's political history for 35 years and was the subject of a cult of personality. Human Rights Watch estimated that his regime was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis. Saddam's government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and totalitarian, and by some as fascist, although the applicability of those labels has been contested. Many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a dictator responsible for severe authoritarianism, repression, and numerous injustices. Conversely, many Arabs and Muslims regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism, opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine, and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Some Iraqi Christians, Mandaeans and Jews view Saddam as a protector of their communities. After his overthrow, Iraq descended into instability, and claims linking him to weapons of mass destruction and al-Qaeda were proven false. This has led many Iraqis to view his rule as preferable to the current situation.

Many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a dictator responsible for severe authoritarianism, repression, and numerous injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's regime was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis. Conversely, many Arabs regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism, opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine, and resisted foreign intervention in the region.

A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated Iraqi politics for 35 years and was the subject of a cult of personality. Many Arabs regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism, opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine, and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Conversely, many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a dictator responsible for severe authoritarianism, repression, and numerous injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's regime was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis. Saddam's government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and totalitarian, and by some as fascist, although the applicability of those labels has been contested.

Saddam Hussein Abdul Majid al-Tikriti, known as Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. Prior to his presidency, he served as Iraq's vice president from 1968 to 1979 and held the position of prime minister twice, from 1979 to 1991 and again from 1994 to 2003.

A Sunni Muslim from Tikrit, Saddam did his schooling from Baghdad and studied from Cairo University. He joined the Ba'ath Party in 1957 and later its Baghdad-based Regional Branch. He played a key role in the 1968 revolution, that brought the Ba'ath Party to power. Saddam was appointed as vice president under the presidency of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. As vice president, he presided over the First and Second Iraqi-Kurdish wars. Saddam introduced free healthcare and education, oversaw nationalization of oil, and development of infrastructure. He attempted to ease tensions among Iraq's ethnic and religious groups. Saddam turned Iraq into one of the most developed countries, for which he was given an award from the UNESCO in 1982. Following the resignation of al-Bakr in July 1979, Saddam assumed the presidency and chairmanship of the Revolutionary Command Council, the Supreme Executive Body of Iraq.

Saddam initiated the Iran–Iraq War, beginning with the invasion of Iran in 1980 lasted till 1988, ending in a stalemate ceasefire. During the last stages of the war, he suppressed Kurdish uprisings through the Anfal Campaign. Later, he accused Kuwait of stealing Iraq's oil reserves and invaded the country in 1990, annexing it as Iraq's 19th governorate, which led to the Gulf War. It ended in 1991 in a victory for the coalition forces led by the United States. Following this, relations between Iraq and the United States deteriorated, leading the U.S. to adopt a policy supporting Saddam's overthrow. Saddam suppressed uprisings in 1991, later attempted to negotiate with Kurdish groups, and intervened in the Kurdish Civil War. Iraq's economy declined due to international sanctions imposed but began improving in 2000 as the country worked to rebuild relations with several Arab and Muslim nations, as well as India and the Western countries.

In 2003, a United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, accusing Saddam of possessing weapons of mass destruction and having links to al-Qaeda, during the September 11 attacks. Within weeks, the coalition forces occupied Baghdad, where Saddam's government was overthrown. He was captured, interrogated, and subsequently handed over to the Tribunal Court. There, he was tried and sentenced to death for the 1982 Dujail massacre. Saddam was executed on December 30, 2006, the eve of Eid al-Adha—a move widely condemned internationally due to its timing on a holy day.

A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated political history of Iraq and was the subject of a cult of personality. Widely criticized for authoritarianism, repression, and injustices, particularly by Shias and Kurds, his regime was responsible for the deaths or disappearances of an estimated 250,000 to 290,000 people, according to Human Rights Watch. His government has been described as authoritarian, totalitarian, and at times fascist, though these labels remain debated. Conversely, many Arabs view Saddam, a leader who opposed Western imperialism, resisted foreign intervention, and supported Palestine. He was also regarded by some Iraqi Christians, Mandaeans and Jews as a protector of their communities. After his overthrow, Iraq descended into instability, and claims linking him to weapons of mass destruction and al-Qaeda were proven false. This has led many Iraqis to view his rule as preferable to the current situation.

Early life

With help of Nasser, Saddam got admission in the Cairo University in 1962. Later he continued his studies at Baghdad Law College after the Ba'athists took power in 1963. In 1971, he received a law degree from the University of Baghdad.

Early life

Saddam's full name was Saddam Hussein Al-Majid Al-Tikriti was born on 28 April 1937, in al-Awja, a small village near Tikrit, to Hussein Abid Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They were both from the Al-Bejat clan of the Al-Bu Nasir tribe, which was descended from Sayyid Ahmed Nasiruddin bin Hussein, a descendant of Husayn ibn Ali. His father Hussein was from the Al-Majid branch of the Al-Bejat clan, his mother Subha was granddaughter of Mussallat bin Omar Al-Nasiri, a tribal leader of the Al-Bu Nasir tribe and an opponent of the Ottoman rule in Iraq. His Al-Bejat clan descended from Omar Bey bin Shabib Al-Nasiri who was appointed as a Bey by the ruling Ottomans over the region of Tikrit. Majority of the Al-Bu Nasir led a Bedouin life in Tikrit, Saddam's own father Hussein Al-Majid being a shepherd Bedouin. His Husaynid Bedouin Al-Bu Nasir originally been settled in Yemen, migrated to Syria settling in Aleppo and Harran, later settling in Tikrit in Iraq under Ottoman rule.

Saddam's name means "the fighter who stands steadfast". His father died before his birth. This made Saddam's mother, Subha, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide. His mother was saved by their Jewish neighbors. Subha "would have nothing to do with him", and Saddam was eventually taken in by an uncle. His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage – Barzan, Sabawi and Watban. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the CIA) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up. At around the age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Khairallah Talfah, who became a fatherly figure to Saddam. Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom, which remained a major colonial power in the region. Talfah was appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office.

Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party, of which his uncle was a supporter. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and the Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq, and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle.

Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq, progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists). Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, Yemen and Libya. Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956, modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically. Saddam's father-in-law, Khairallah Talfah, was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état and Anglo-Iraqi War, and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam.

In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution.

Education

Al-Kassie with Saddam

Saddam hailed from a poor village, where people had no access to education. He had a dream to go to school and learn. But his family was not ready, as they thought that education was a waste of time and wanted Saddam to work on farming in the village. His village didn't had facilities of even primary education. For that he had to step out of his village. His uncle Talfah and cousin Adnan Khairallah (also son of Talfah) helped Saddam in receiving education.

He stepped out of Al-Awja and went to Tikrit for schooling. This was Saddam's first rebellious step. He completed his primary education at Tikrit School before moving to Al-Karkh Secondary School in Baghdad, where he lived during that period with his uncle Talfah. He joined Al-Karkh High School, where he finished his secondary education and then tried to join the Baghdad Military Academy, but his poor grades prevented him from doing so. Saddam joined Baghdad Law School, but dropped out of college before completing his law degree due to his political activity.

Saddam fled to Egypt after failed assassination attempt on Qasim in 1959. There enrolled in Faculty of Law at Cairo University in 1961 with help of Nasser. But he did not complete his education, as he returned to Iraq after Qasim was overthrown in 1963. Saddam completed his law studies in Baghdad. However, his studies were interrupted when he was arrested as a result of another coup. Saddam received the certificate in law from the University of Baghdad in 1971.

Even after his rise to power, he continued education. He entered the Iraqi Military College in 1969 and graduated in 1973. Saddam obtained a master's degree with honors in military sciences with the staff badge from the Iraqi Staff College on February 1, 1979. In 1984, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Baghdad. He has studies in military sciences and numerous intellectual works in politics, economics, sociology, and educational aspects that have been translated into the languages ​​of the world. Professional wrestler Adnan Al-Kaissie was one of his classmates.

Education

Saddam in 1956

Saddam hailed from a poor village where people had no access to education. He dreamed of going to school and learning, but his family was opposed to the idea, believing that education was a waste of time. They wanted Saddam to work on the farm in the village. His village lacked even basic facilities for primary education, which compelled him to leave in pursuit of schooling. His uncle, Khairallah Talfah, and cousin, Adnan Khairallah (Talfah's son), played a significant role in supporting Saddam's education.

Saddam left Al-Awja and went to Tikrit to attend school, marking his first rebellious step toward achieving his dream. He completed his primary education at Tikrit School before moving to Al-Karkh Secondary School in Baghdad, where he lived with his uncle Talfah. Saddam eventually attended Al-Karkh High School, where he finished his secondary education. He later attempted to join the Baghdad Military Academy, but his poor grades prevented his admission. Instead, Saddam enrolled in Baghdad Law School but dropped out before completing his degree due to his involvement in political activities.

After a failed assassination attempt on Qasim in 1959, Saddam fled to Egypt. In 1961, he enrolled in the Faculty of Law at Cairo University with the assistance of Nasser. However, he did not complete his studies there, as he returned to Iraq following Qasim's overthrow in 1963. Saddam later resumed his law education in Baghdad but was arrested during another coup, which disrupted his studies. He ultimately earned a law degree from the University of Baghdad in 1971.

Even after rising to power, Saddam continued his education. He entered the Iraqi Military College in 1969 and graduated in 1973. On February 1, 1979, he earned a master's degree with honors in military sciences, along with the staff badge, from the Iraqi Staff College. In 1984, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Baghdad. Saddam also pursued studies in military sciences and produced numerous intellectual works on politics, economics, sociology, and educational aspects that have been translated into the languages ​​of the world. Notably, professional wrestler Adnan Al-Kaissie was one of his classmates during this period.

Presidency (!)

Domestic policies

Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents. Saddam sought to gain support from citizens with various ethnic and religious backgrounds by making generous contributions to their communities.

Religion, sect and ethnicity

Saddam praying at the Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad, Iran

The government of Saddam was dominated by Arab Sunni Muslims. Contrary to popular belief, Saddam was not inherently sectarian. He did place his people from his own Sunni community in high positions, Saddam ensured to give several other communities recognition. Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents.

Saddam's position on Kurdish politics is debated, with events such as the Anfal Campaign leading many critics to denounce Saddam. Despite this, Saddam's government had a higher tolerance of Iraqi Kurds than in countries such as Syria and Turkey, with partial autonomy being granted to them and Kurdish being recognized as an official language that was freely spoken. The Kurds were allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions. Kurds in Iraq were able to elect a Kurdish representative to Baghdad with the KDP being legitimized as a legal, progressive party in Iraq. Iraqi Christians are predominantly Assyrians, followed by Armenians and Arabs. In the 1970s, the government recognized cultural rights of Assyrians, allowing them to use Syriac language for education and media. However, the decree did not take in-effect. Despite imposition of Arab nationalism, they often enjoyed broad religious rights. Being refrained from sensitive politics, allowed Assyrians to preserve their religious identity and language, albeit in a limited and constrained manner.

Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq. The Christian community in flourished in the era of Saddam. Cardinal Fernando Filoni, who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that during Saddam's time, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim Iraq. Mandaeans were given state protection under Saddam. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to build temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans". However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received. Upon taking power, Saddam improved conditions of the remaining Jews in Iraq and lifted discriminatory laws. He granted them protection and permission to practice their religion. In 1998, on the day of Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian entered the Baghdad synagogue and shot four people to death, including two Jews. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack. He also said that: "Anyone who hurt the Jews in Baghdad would pay a heavy price". The attacker was arrested and executed in 1999.

Shi'as were important part of the society. Several high-ranking officials, military officers, and administrators were Shi'as. Shi'as constituted 75% of the party cadres and middle leadership, while 50% of the regional leadership members were Shi'as. In the military, Shi'as made up 80% of the overall army personnel, with 60% representation among officers. Within the Republican Guard, 60% of soldiers and 50% of officers were Shi'as. The Special Guard comprised 30% Shi'a soldiers and 20% Shi'a officers. Shi'as accounted for 60% of intelligence personnel and 75% of Public Security soldiers, with 40% of its officers being Shi'as. In government institutions, Shi'as represented 80% of employees and held 60% of general manager positions. Within the Council of Ministers, Shi'as constituted 55% of its members. Over 60% of the general managers in the Military Industrialization Authority and 70% of the advanced engineering and technical staff in the military were Shiites. In diplomatic and political sphere, well-known Shi'as were Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi, Sa'dun Hammadi and Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf. Governers of the Central Bank and important positions in the oil sector were held by Shi'as.

Saddam also had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with the highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents, along with Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf. Other well known Kurdish figures in the government were Munther Muzaffar al-Naqshbandi, Abdul Wahab Al-Atroshi, Aziz Aqrawi, Makram Talabani, Abdullah Ismail Ahmed Al-Aqrawi and Hashem Hassan Rashid Aqrawi. According to Saddam during his trial in 2006, two brigades were formed in the Republican Guard during the 2003 war, were composed entirely of Kurds, citing a proof that the government then did not discriminate against Kurds. The Jews were allowed to hold jobs as professors, doctors, teachers, and civil servants in the government and state institutions and served in the army as engineers and doctors as well as soldier. Saddam appointed Naji Arab as Jewish representative in the government. Some of the well-known engineers and doctors in the government and military were Jews, such as Shaoul Sassoon and Dr. Eliyahu. A Jewish chemist, from Basra, Ibrahim Hesqel was sent by Saddam on a trade mission to China in 1988.

Religion and sectarianism

During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam tried to get support from the Shia community. He provided financial support to Shi'ite waqfs and donations the restoration of Imam Ali’s Tomb. Saddam invited Shia members of the party, who were expelled. The Iraqi Armed Forces, governing body of the ruling party and National Assembly was dominated by Shias. Saddam also appointed some of the Shias to important, such as Sadun Hammadi, the Speaker of the National Assembly and Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf, the Minister of Information. Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq. Tariq Aziz, an ethnic Iraqi Assyrian and member of the Chaldean Catholic minority, was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party. Michel Aflaq, the founder of Ba'athism, was also a Christian. Cardinal Fernando Filoni, who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country.

Saddam was recognized for safeguarding the Mandaean minority in Iraq. They were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam.. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans". A large number of Mandeans also worked in numerous positions, such as poet Abdul Razzaq, the cultural advisor to the Ministry of Culture and Information and Lamia Abbas, who was a cultural attaché and deputy permanent representative of Iraq to the UNESCO in Paris for the period 1973-1975. Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. In 2001, Saddam gave them the title of "Golden Sect", for their role in building Iraq.

Upon assuming power, around 15,000 Jews lived in Iraq. Saddam lifted restrictions and discriminatory laws against them, and granted them protection and permission to practice their religion. He allowed Jews to have jobs in the government. Some of them were prominent civil officers, doctors and engineers in government and army were Jews. A Jewish chemist named Salim Asheer was sent by Saddam on a trade mission to China in 1988. In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly helped an estimated 150 remaining Jews in getting released from detention.

However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received.

Later years

Saddam later decided to use Euro, instead of Dollars for Iraqi oil. Almost all of Iraq's oil exports under the United Nations oil-for-food program were paid in euros since 2001. Approximately 26 billion euros (£17.4bn) was paid for 3.3 billion barrels of oil into an escrow account in New York. By then, diplomatic isolation of Iraq with Arab states were gradually disappearing, and the economy of Iraq had improved by 2000, with its GDP increasing to U$23.73 billion. Internally Saddam continued authoritarian way of governance and suppressed political opponents. On 25 April 2001, the British government started investigation on alleged war crimes done by Saddam.

Saddam speaking to the state television, 2001

Following the outbreak of the Second Intifada in the Palestinian territories, Saddam openly expressed solidarity with the Palestinians, and established the Jerusalem Army, a volunteer force in solidarity with the Palestinians. On eve of Christmas in 2000, Saddam wrote a public letter, calling for Christians and Muslims, to lead jihad against the Zionist movement. In 2001, Saddam declared on Iraqi television:

Palestine is Arab and must be liberated from the river to the sea and all the Zionists who emigrated to the land of Palestine must leave.

— Saddam Hussein

In May 2001, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party held its 12th Regional Congress. Saddam commenced the congress with a speech advising the more than 300 delegates on how to vote. After the speech, the elections took place, and Saddam was reelected as party general secretary at the Ba'ath congress in Baghdad, with every delegate in the hall rising to their feet. State television reported that 24 candidates stood, and eight new members were elected for positions in the Ba'ath's 18-member executive, known as the Iraqi Regional Command. The deputy secretary general of the command, Izzat Ibrahim, was re-elected, and according to the constitution, he would become the interim president in the event of Saddam's sudden death. Saddam's youngest son and heir apparent Qusay was elected for the first time into the Command. A surprise was the election of Huda Saleh Mehdi Ammash, the first woman to win a seat on the party executive. Saddam had recently encouraged women to play a greater role in Iraq. Among those who lost their executive seats was the deputy prime minister, Mohammed Hamza al-Zubaidi.

After winning the referendum in 2001, Saddam freed thousands of political prisoners.

In 2002, Austrian prosecutors investigated Saddam government's transactions with Fritz Edlinger that possibly violated Austrian money laundering and embargo regulations. Fritz Edlinger, president of the General Secretary of the Society for Austro-Arab relations (GÖAB) and a former member of Socialist International's Middle East Committee, was an outspoken supporter of Saddam Hussein. In 2005, an Austrian journalist revealed that Fritz Edlinger's GÖAB had received $100,000 from an Iraqi front company as well as donations from Austrian companies soliciting business in Iraq.

In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the European Union was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq. The statement condemned Saddam's government for its "systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law." The resolution demanded that Iraq immediately put an end to its "summary and arbitrary executions ... the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances."

15 March – Saddam puts Iraq on a war footing, dividing the country into four military districts and putting his younger son Qusay in command of the Baghdad-Tikrit area.

Foreign policies

In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East. Saddam rarely left Iraq and had Tariq Aziz, one of his deputies, travel abroad extensively and represent Iraq at many diplomatic meetings. Iraq's relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied.

Several Iraqi leaders, Lebanese arms merchant Sarkis Soghanalian and others have claimed that Saddam financed Chirac's party. After France participated in the Gulf War against Iraq, Saddam threatened to expose those who had taken largesse from him: "From Mr. Chirac to Mr. Chevènement, politicians and economic leaders were in open competition to spend time with us and flatter us. We have now grasped the reality of the situation. If the trickery continues, we will be forced to unmask them, all of them, before the French public." France armed Saddam and it was Iraq's largest trade partner throughout Saddam's rule. Seized documents show how French officials and businessmen close to Chirac, including Charles Pasqua, his former interior minister, personally benefitted from the deals with Saddam.

Relations between Iraq and Egypt violently ruptured in 1977, when the two nations broke relations with each other following Iraq's criticism of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's peace initiatives with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab League summit that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the Camp David Accords. Saddam led Arab opposition to the Camp David Accords. Egypt's strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in the war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt's "natural role" among Arab countries.

Vice Presidency: 1968–1979

Political program

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally al-Bakr's second-in-command, Saddam built a reputation as a progressive, effective politician. At this time, Saddam moved up the ranks in the new government by aiding attempts to strengthen and unify the Ba'ath party and taking a leading role in addressing the country's major domestic problems and expanding the party's following.

Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy and created a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it. Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among the diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs.^{[citation needed]}

Health and education

Within just a few years, Iraq was providing unprecedented social services among Middle Eastern countries.^{[citation needed]} Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program. The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers. Iraq created one of the most modernized public health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Economic reforms

At the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector. A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the 1973 energy crisis, and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda. With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy. Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries. The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries. Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas. Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants. This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion. He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans.

The oil revenue benefited Saddam politically. According to The Economist, "Much as Adolf Hitler won early praise for galvanizing German industry, ending mass unemployment and building autobahns, Saddam earned admiration abroad for his deeds. He had a good instinct for what the "Arab street" demanded, following the decline in Egyptian leadership brought about by the trauma of Israel's six-day victory in the 1967 war, the death of the pan-Arabist hero, Gamal Abdul Nasser, in 1970, and the "traitorous" drive by his successor, Anwar Sadat, to sue for peace with the Jewish state. Saddam's self-aggrandizing propaganda, with himself posing as the defender of Arabism against Zionist or Persian intruders, was heavy-handed, but consistent as a drumbeat. It helped, of course, that his mukhabarat (secret police) put dozens of Arab news editors, writers and artists on the payroll."

Religion

In the early years of the Ba'ath Party rule, a large number of Jews were arrested, detained and execution on accusation of spying for Israel. The most notable was the hanging of 14 men including 9 Jews in 1969 and killing of an entire Jewish family in 1973. These events resulted widespread criticism. However, soon this campaign ended and no more repressions on Jews took place. The government sought to polish its image in position of Jews. Several gestures were made with Jews by the government. This was seen as propaganda.

In 1975, the government invited Iraqi Jews living allover the world back to Iraq.

Religi

Saddam with members of the Ba'ath National Command — Michel Aflaq (left), Shibli al-Ayssami, AlBakr and others

In the early years of the Ba'ath Party rule, many Jews were accused for supporting Israel. A large number of Jews were arrested, jailed and tortured. In 1969, 14 men including 9 Jews were publicly hanged, on accusation of collaborating with Israel. The move was widely criticized. More Jews were executed secretly. Few were killed or died under torture. These events were coming in light of the international community. However, after the end of this campaign in 1971, there were no more executions, arrests or detentions.

Saddam personally helped an estimated 150 Jews to get release from detention and migrate to other countries, those who wish. Among them was Naim Twaina, a Jewish businessman in Baghdad. Twaina was a regular customer of cigarettes from a shop, which was owned by Saddam. There are also many stories published on Jewish magazine —The Scribe, of Saddam along with his uncle Khairallah Talfah helping Jews personally.

Situation of Jews in Iraq began improving as Saddam assumed more power. In 1973, a committee was formed by the government to oversee the properties of expelled Jews, such as Menahem Saleh Daniel. A representative from the Jewish community was also appointed by the Revolutionary Command Council. In 1975, the government invited Iraqi Jews living allover the world back to Iraq.

Presidency: 1979–2003

Main article: Presidency of Saddam Hussein

Inauguration and purge

Saddam officially became president after resignation of al-Bakr on 16 July 1979. He was acceded to the chairmanship of the Revolutionary Command Council of Iraq. It was Iraq's then Supreme Executive Body. Saddam convened an assembly of Ba'ath party leaders on 22 July 1979. During the assembly, which he ordered videotaped, Saddam claimed to have found a fifth column within the Ba'ath Party and directed Muhyi Abdel-Hussein to read out a confession and the names of 68 alleged co-conspirators. These members were labelled "disloyal" and were removed from the room one by one and taken into custody. After the list was read, Saddam congratulated those still seated in the room for their past and future loyalty. The 68 people arrested at the meeting were subsequently tried together and found guilty of treason; 22 were sentenced to execution. Other high-ranking members of the party formed the firing squad. By 1 August 1979, hundreds of high-ranking Ba'ath party members had been executed.

Domestic policies

Religion, sect and ethnicity

Saddam appointed representatives from each religion, sect and ethnic group in the government.

Iran–Iraq War

In early 1979, the Pahalvi dynasty led by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown in the Islamic Revolution and gave a way for the establishment of an Islamic Republic, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Saddam and Khomeini had bitter enmity since the 1970s. Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964 and took up residence in Najaf, a holy city for Shi'ite Muslims. There he involved himself with Iraqi Shi'ite groups and developed a strong religious and political following against the Iranian government, which Saddam tolerated. Khomeini urged Shi'ite to overthrow Saddam. Also under pressure from the Shah, Saddam expelled Khomeini to France. There he gained media and support from Iranians. After Khomeini gained power, skirmishes between Iraq and Iran occurred for ten months over Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides the two countries. During this period, Saddam publicly maintained that it was in Iraq's interest not to engage with Iran, and that it was in the interests of both nations to maintain peaceful relations.

Adnan Khairallah, Minister of Defence Minister, being awarded by Saddam, 1988

On 22 September 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, first launching attack against Tehran's Mehrabad Airport. The Iraqi Army occupied oil-rich province of Khuzestan, which also has a sizable Arab minority. The invasion was initially successful, as Iraq captured more than 25,900 km² of Iranian territory by 5 December 1980. In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around strategic ports as Iraq launched an attack on Khuzestan. After making some initial gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was on the defensive and looking for ways to end the war. Iraq quickly found itself bogged down in one of the longest and most destructive wars of attrition of the 20th century. During the war, Iraq used chemical weapons against Iranian forces fighting on the southern front and Kurdish separatists who were attempting to open up a northern front in Iraq with the help of Iran.

Anfal Campaign

The Anfal campaign was a campaign that took place during the Iran–Iraq War against the Kurdish people and many others in Kurdish regions of Iraq led by the government and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid. The campaign takes its name from Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks against the peshmerga rebels and the mostly Kurdish civilian population of rural Northern Iraq, conducted between 1986 and 1989 culminating in 1988. This campaign also targeted Shabaks and Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people and many villages belonging to these ethnic groups were also destroyed. Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed. Some Kurdish sources put the number higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds were killed.

On 16 March 1988, the Kurdish town of Halabja was attacked with a mix of mustard gas and nerve agents during the Halabja massacre, killing between 3,200 and 5,000 people, and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, mostly civilians. The attack occurred in conjunction with the Anfal campaign designed to reassert central control of the mostly Kurdish population of areas of northern Iraq and defeat the Kurdish peshmerga rebel forces. Following the incident, The U.S. State Department took the official position that Iran was partly to blame for the Halabja massacre. A study by the Defense Intelligence Agency held Iran responsible for the attack. This assessment was subsequently used by the Central Intelligence Agency for much of the early 1990s. Despite this, few observers today doubt that it was Iraq that executed the Halabja massacre.

Foreign support

In a bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the U.S removed Iraq from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism in February 1982. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former U.S Assistant Secretary of Defense Noel Koch later stated, "No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism ... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran." The Soviet Union, France, and China together accounted for over 90% of the value of Iraq's arms imports between 1980 and 1988.

While the United States supplied Iraq with arms, dual-use technology and economic aid, it was also involved in a covert and illegal arms deal, providing sanctioned Iran with weaponry. This political scandal became known as the Iran–Contra affair. Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political support during the war, particularly after Iraq's oil industry severely suffered at the hands of the Iranian navy in the Persian Gulf. Iraq successfully gained some military and financial aid, as well as diplomatic and moral support, from the Soviet Union, China, France, and the United States, which together feared the prospects of the expansion of revolutionary Iran's influence in the region.

End of War

The Iranians, demanding that the international community should force Iraq to pay war reparations to Iran, refused any suggestions for a cease-fire. Despite several calls for a ceasefire by the United Nations Security Council, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988. The bloody eight-year war ended in a stalemate. Encyclopædia Britannica states: "Estimates of total casualties range from 1,000,000 to twice that number. The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses." Neither side had achieved what they had originally desired and the borders were left nearly unchanged. The southern, oil rich and prosperous Khuzestan and Basra area (the main focus of the war, and the primary source of their economies) were almost completely destroyed and were left at the pre-1979 border, while Iran managed to make some small gains on its borders in the Northern Kurdish area.

Both economies, previously healthy and expanding, were left in ruins. Saddam borrowed tens of billions of dollars from other Arab states and a few billions from elsewhere during the 1980s to fight Iran, mainly to prevent the expansion of Shi'a radicalism. This backfired on Iraq and the Arab states, for Khomeini was widely perceived as a hero for managing to defend Iran and maintain the war with little foreign support against the heavily backed Iraq and only managed to boost Islamic radicalism not only within the Arab states, but within Iraq itself, creating new tensions between the Sunni Ba'ath Party and the majority Shi'a population. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure and internal resistance, Saddam desperately re-sought cash, this time for postwar reconstruction.

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Middle East special envoy Donald Rumsfeld met Saddam on 19–20 December 1983.

With the support of other Arab states, the United States, and Europe, and heavily financed by the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Saddam had become "the defender of the Arab world" against a revolutionary, fundamentalist and Shia Islamist Iran. The only exception was the Soviet Union, which initially refused to supply Iraq on the basis of neutrality in the conflict, although in his memoirs, Mikhail Gorbachev claimed that Leonid Brezhnev refused to aid Saddam over infuriation of Saddam's treatment of Iraqi communists.

Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988

Adnan Khairallah, Defense Minister with Saddam, 1982

There had also been bitter enmity between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s. Khomeini, having been exiled from Iran in 1964, took up residence in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of Najaf. There he involved himself with Iraqi Shi'ites and developed a strong religious and political following against the Iranian Government, which Saddam tolerated. When Khomeini began to urge the Shi'ites there to overthrow Saddam and under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to expel Khomeini in 1978 to France. Here, Khomeini gained media connections and collaborated with a much larger Iranian community, to his advantage. After Khomeini gained power, skirmishes between Iraq and revolutionary Iran occurred for ten months over the sovereignty of the disputed Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides the two countries. During this period, Saddam publicly maintained that it was in Iraq's interest not to engage with Iran, and that it was in the interests of both nations to maintain peaceful relations.

Carlos Cardoen meeting Saddam

Iraq invaded Iran on 22 September 1980, first launching airstrikes on numerous targets in Iran, including the Mehrabad Airport of Tehran, before occupying the oil-rich Iranian province of Khuzestan, which also has a sizable Arab minority. The invasion was initially successful, as Iraq captured more than 25,900 km² of Iranian territory by 5 December 1980. With the support of other Arab states, the United States, and Europe, and heavily financed by the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Saddam had become "the defender of the Arab world" against a revolutionary, fundamentalist and Shia Islamist Iran. The only exception was the Soviet Union, which initially refused to supply Iraq on the basis of neutrality in the conflict, although in his memoirs, Mikhail Gorbachev claimed that Leonid Brezhnev refused to aid Saddam over infuriation of Saddam's treatment of Iraqi communists. Consequently, many viewed Iraq as "an agent of the civilized world." The blatant disregard of international law and violations of international borders were ignored. Instead Iraq received economic and military support from its allies, who overlooked Saddam's use of chemical warfare against the Kurds and the Iranians, in addition to Iraq's efforts to develop nuclear weapons.

In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around strategic ports as Iraq launched an attack on Khuzestan. After making some initial gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was on the defensive and looking for ways to end the war. Middle East special envoy Donald Rumsfeld met Saddam on 19–20 December 1983.

Anfal Campaign

The campaign takes its name from Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks against the peshmerga rebels and the mostly Kurdish civilian population of rural Northern Iraq, conducted between 1986 and 1989 culminating in 1988. This campaign also targeted Shabaks and Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people and Mandeans and many villages belonging to these ethnic groups were also destroyed. Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed. Some Kurdish sources put the number higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds were killed.

Gulf War

Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and thus keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off its huge debt.

Post-war uprisings

Main articles: 1991 Iraqi uprisings and 1999 Iraqi uprisings

Iraq's ethnic and religious divisions, together with the brutality of the conflict that this had engendered, laid the groundwork for postwar rebellions. In the aftermath of the fighting, social and ethnic unrest among Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units threatened the stability of Saddam's government. Uprisings erupted in the Kurdish north and Shi'a southern and central parts of Iraq, but were ruthlessly repressed. Uprisings in 1991 led to the death of 100,000–180,000 people, mostly civilians.

The United States, which had urged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam, did nothing to assist the rebellions. The Iranians, despite the widespread Shi'ite rebellions, had no interest in provoking another war, while Turkey opposed any prospect of Kurdish independence, and the Saudis and other conservative Arab states feared an Iran-style Shi'ite revolution. Saddam, having survived the immediate crisis in the wake of defeat, was left firmly in control of Iraq, although the country never recovered either economically or militarily from the Gulf War.

The United Nations sanctions placed upon Iraq when it invaded Kuwait were not lifted, blocking Iraqi oil exports. During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions. On 9 December 1996, Saddam's government accepted the Oil-for-Food Programme that the UN had first offered in 1992.

Later years: 2000–2003

Saddam continued involvement in politics abroad. Video tapes retrieved after show his intelligence chiefs meeting with Arab journalists, including a meeting with the former managing director of Al-Jazeera, Mohammed Jassem al-Ali, in 2000. In the video Saddam's son Uday advised al-Ali about hires in Al-Jazeera: "During your last visit here along with your colleagues we talked about a number of issues, and it does appear that you indeed were listening to what I was saying since changes took place and new faces came on board such as that lad, Mansour." He was later sacked by Al-Jazeera. In August 2000, Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez made a visit to Iraq and met Saddam. He was first leader of a foreign state to visit the country, since the Gulf War. His meeting with Saddam was criticized by the United States, who is a major importer of Venezuela's oil. During his tour to invite the leaders of the 10 OPEC member states to a summit the following month, Chávez expressed that he had engaged in "fruitful" discussions with Saddam regarding the future role of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the defense of reasonable oil prices. Chávez emphasized the significance of bilateral cooperation between their nations in these matters. The discussions between Chávez and Saddam took place in the past, during a period when both leaders were active. Chávez sought to strengthen ties and foster collaboration among OPEC member states, focusing on the organization's future trajectory and the importance of maintaining oil prices at a reasonable level. The aim was to ensure stability and fairness in the global oil market.

In October 2000, Saddam was also visited by then Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi's daughter Ayesha Gaddafi. Saddam later decided to use Euro, instead of Dollars for Iraqi oil. Almost all of Iraq's oil exports under the United Nations oil-for-food program were paid in euros since 2001. Approximately 26 billion euros (£17.4bn) was paid for 3.3 billion barrels of oil into an escrow account in New York. Internally Saddam continued authoritarian way of governance and suppressed political opponents. Between October and November 2000 Saddam led volunteer's campaign in solidarity with the Palestinians during the second intifada. Diplomatic isloation of Iraq with Arab states were disappearing gradually. On 25 April 2001, the British government started investigation on alleged war crimes done by Saddam.

Saddam addresses state television, in January 2001.

Following month Saddam was chosen as party general secretary at the Baath congress in Baghdad, with every delegate in the hall rising to their feet. However, the Baath's 18-member executive, known as the Iraqi Regional Command, was selected through a secret ballot. The state television reported that 24 candidates stood, and eight new members were elected. Among them was Qusay, Saddam's younger son. Despite holding no high position in the Baath or government, Uday had long been considered the likely successor to his father. This situation resembled Syria, where Bashar al–Assad succeeded his father as president of the country the 2000, despite not previously holding a high position in the party or government. Saddam commenced the Baghdad party meeting with a speech advising the more than 300 delegates on how to vote. After the speech, the elections took place. Another surprise was the election of Huda Saleh Mehdi Ammash, the first woman to win a seat on the party executive. Saddam had recently encouraged women to play a greater role in Iraq. The deputy secretary general of the command, Izzat Ibrahim, was re-elected, and according to the constitution, he would become the interim president in the event of Saddam's sudden death. Among those who lost their executive seats was the deputy prime minister, Mohammed Hamza al-Zubaidi.

Vladimir Putin sent a message to Saddam in 2001, promoting diplomatic relations between Iraq and Russia. Saddam also invited Kurds to the negotiation table. A foreign coup d'état was planned to overthrow Saddam, which was later dropped down after three months of September 11 attacks. Saddam condemned the 9/11 attacks and replied to email of a family member of a victim of the attack and expressed condolence and sympathy.

In 2002, Austrian prosecutors investigated Saddam government's transactions with Fritz Edlinger that possibly violated Austrian money laundering and embargo regulations. Fritz Edlinger, president of the General Secretary of the Society for Austro-Arab relations (GÖAB) and a former member of Socialist International's Middle East Committee, was an outspoken supporter of Saddam. In 2005, an Austrian journalist revealed that Fritz Edlinger's GÖAB had received $100,000 from an Iraqi front company as well as donations from Austrian companies soliciting business in Iraq.

In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the European Union was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq. The statement condemned Saddam's government for its "systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law." The resolution demanded that Iraq immediately put an end to its "summary and arbitrary executions ... the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances."

Domestic Policies

Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background. However, repressive measures were taken against its opponents.

Paramilitary and police organizations

Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule).

The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the People's Army, which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Saddam's younger half-brother, commanded Mukhabarat.

Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents. Saddam was notable for using terror against his own people. The Economist described Saddam as "one of the last of the 20th century's great dictators, but not the least in terms of egotism, or cruelty, or morbid will to power." Saddam's regime brought about the deaths of at least 250,000 Iraqis and committed war crimes in Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International issued regular reports of widespread imprisonment and torture.

Religion and Ethnicity (!)

Iraq, with an Arab–Muslim majority, is home to diverse religious, ethnic and sectarian population. The Ba'ath Party's secular and pan-Arab ideologies were problematic for significant parts of the population, such as ethnic Kurds in northern Iraq and Shia Muslims. He did place his close relatives of Sunni community in key security and military positions, he also promoted individuals from other communities and minorities to the highest levels of power in Iraq. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents. His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him. Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq. Cardinal Fernando Filoni, who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country. Tariq Aziz, an ethnic Assyrian and a Chaldean Catholic Christian, was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party. In 2003, Pope John Paul II visited Saddam in March 2003 and addressed the message for peace.

Shi'ite Muslims make majority of Iraq's population. Under Saddam, Shi'ite opposition was repressed. In the beginning, Shi'ite Muslims were marginalized. During war with Iran, Saddam made overcame the threat of Shi'ite opposition. All expelled Shi'ite members of the party were appointed back. Also 80% of the Iraqi Armed Forces and 40% of the National Assembly of Iraq were Shi'ite. The majority of the Ba'ath Party's governing body were Shi'ite Muslims. Saddam appointed numerous Shi'ites to important positions, including Sa'dun Hammadi, who was made Speaker of the National Assembly in 1996, and Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf, who served as Minister of Information from 2001 to 2003.

Upon assuming power, around 15,000 Jews lived in Iraq. Saddam lifted restrictions and discriminatory laws against them, and granted them protection and permission to practice their religion. He allowed Jews to have jobs in the government. Some of them were prominent doctors and engineers in the army. In 1988, a Jewish chemist named Salim Asheer was sent by Saddam on a trade mission to China. In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly helped an estimated 150 remaining Jews in getting released from detention.

Saddam was also recognized for safeguarding the Mandaean minority in Iraq. They were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans". The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on land donated by the Ministry of Finance. In 2001, Saddam gave them the title of "Golden Sect". Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praised him for the protection they received.

As a result of Saddam's modernization efforts, the Armenian community flourished. Before 2003, there were 100,000 Armenians in Iraq. Saddam's nanny was an Iraqi–Armenian, along with one of his body guards, his jeweler, tailor, and housestaff. During the war with Iran, when the Kurds fled to avoid military service, Armenians went to fight for Iraq.

Although his position on Kurdish politics has been debated. Saddam has allowed autonomy for Kurds to an extent, with Kurds being allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions. Kurds in Iraq were also able to elect a Kurdish representative to Baghdad with the KDP being legitimized as a legal progressive party in Iraq. Saddam had already signed a autonomy agreement in 1970, but Mustafa Barzani eventually disagreed with the deal, which incited the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as Iran, Turkey, and Syria, Iraqi Kurds were treated well under the regime of Saddam when compared to their conditions in those countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated under Saddam in education, and media, and spoken as a official language.

Saddam had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with the highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan —one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents. He was also made Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party and commander of the People's Army. Another Kurd was Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf, one of the vice presidents and served as ambassador to Italy, Malta, and Albania. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq.

In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly assisted the remaining Jewish population, allowing many of the estimated 150 remaining Jews to emigrate during the early years of his rule.

Upon assuming power in 1979, Jews in Iraq numbered around 15,000.

During Saddam's rule, Iraq retained a significant Jewish community of around 15,000 people. Saddam took measures to protect Jews, lifting all restrictions and granting them permission to practice their religion freely. He supported the restoration of synagogues, the preservation of Jewish sites, and the construction of a new Jewish cemetery.The Jews were engineers and doctors in the army. Some of the prominent Jews who held high ranking positions was Saleem Ashir, a chemist from Basra, who was sent by Saddam on a trade mission to China in 1988 and represented Iraq at numerous trade missions. In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly assisted the remaining Jewish population, allowing many of the estimated 150 remaining Jews to emigrate during the early years of his rule.

Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq. Cardinal Fernando Filoni, who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country. Tariq Aziz, an ethnic Iraqi Assyrian and member of the Chaldean Catholic minority, was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party. In 2003, Pope John Paul II visited Saddam in March 2003 and addressed the message for peace.

Shi'ite Muslims make majority of Iraq's population. Around 80% of the Iraqi Armed Forces and 40% of the National Assembly of Iraq were Shi'ite. Majority of the Ba'ath Party's governing body were Shi'ite Muslims. Saddam appointed numerous Shi'ites to important positions, including Sa'dun Hammadi, who was made Speaker of the National Assembly in 1996, and Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf, who served as Minister of Information from 2001 to 2003.

Shi'ite Muslims make up the majority of Iraq's population. Previously, there were restrictions on pilgrimages to Karbala and Najaf, and Shi'ites were marginalized. During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam sought to gain support from Shi'ite Muslims. All the expelled Shi'ite members of the party were reinstated. Around 80% of the armed forces were Shi'ite, 40% of the national assembly, and a significant portion of the party's governing body were also Shi'ite. Saddam appointed numerous Shi'ites to important positions, including Sa'dun Hammadi, who was made Speaker of the National Assembly in 1996, and Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf, who served as Minister of Information from 2001 to 2003.

During Saddam's rule, Iraq retained a significant Jewish community of around 15,000 people. Saddam took measures to protect Jews, lifting all restrictions and granting them permission to practice their religion freely. He supported the restoration of synagogues, the preservation of Jewish sites, and the construction of new Jewish cemeteries. Jews also held job in the government and army. Salim Asheer, a Jewish chemist was sent on a trade mission to China. In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly assisted the remaining Jewish population, allowing many of the estimated 150 remaining Jews to emigrate during the early years of his rule.

Saddam was also recognized for safeguarding the Mandaean minority in Iraq. Mandaeans were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans". The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on land donated by the Ministry of Finance. Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received.

Kurds and other ethnic groups

Kurds experienced hardships under Saddam, with events such as the persecution of Feyli Kurds and Anfal Campaign. Saddam also repressed Kurdish rebellions in 1988 and 1991. Although his position on Kurdish politics has been debated. Saddam has allowed autonomy for Kurds to an extent, with Kurds being allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions. Kurds in Iraq were also able to elect a Kurdish representative to Baghdad with the KDP being legitimized as a legal progressive party in Iraq. Saddam had already signed a autonomy agreement in 1970, but Mustafa Barzani eventually disagreed with the deal, which incited the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as Iran, Turkey, and Syria, Iraqi Kurds were treated well under Saddam when compared to their conditions in those countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated in education, and media, and spoken as a official language.

Saddam had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals in this government, with the highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan —one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents. He was also made Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party and commander of the People's Army. Another Kurd was Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf, one of the vice presidents. He was proficient in speaking many languages, thus he was appointed as ambassador to Italy, Malta, and Albania. During the Gulf War, many Kurds participated in support of Iraq. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq.

Rifat Chadirji, a Turkmen architect was appointed by Saddam.

Abu Muslim al-Turkmani was

During Saddam's rule, Iraq retained a significant Jewish community of around 15,000 people. Saddam took measures to protect Jews, lifting all restrictions and granting them permission to practice their religion freely. He supported the restoration of synagogues, the preservation of Jewish sites, and the construction of new Jewish cemeteries. Jews also held positions in the government and army. In 1988, Salim Asheer, a Jewish chemist from Basra, was sent on a trade mission to China. In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly assisted the remaining Jewish population, allowing many of the estimated 150 remaining Jews to emigrate during the early years of his rule.

During Saddam's rule, Iraq retained a significant Jewish community of around 15,000 people. Saddam took measures to protect Jews, appointing a Jewish representative to the government, supporting the restoration of the synagogues, and facilitating the construction of a new Jewish cemeteries. In 1988, Salim Asheer, a Jewish chemist from Basra, was sent on a trade mission to China, while Shaul Sassoon, a Jewish engineer, served as the Technical Head under the Ministry of Industry. In 1998, during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian gunman attacked the Baghdad Jewish headquarters, killing four people, including two Jews; the attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack, with Saddam declaring that "anyone who hurts the Jews in Baghdad will pay a heavy price." He reportedly aided the remaining Jewish population, allowing many of the estimated 150 remaining Jews to emigrate during his early years in power.

Religion and ethnicity

Saddam with Ba'ath Party founder Michel Aflaq at Baghdad, 1988

With an Arab Muslim majority, Iraq consist of a multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multi-sectarian population. Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule).

Saddam, contrary to popular belief, was not inherently sectarian. While he did place his close relatives in key security and military positions, he also promoted individuals from other communities and minorities to the highest levels of power in Iraq. To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents. His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him and his regime.

During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam sought to

His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him and his regime. Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf, a Shia Muslim, was Saddam's minister of foreign affairs from 1991 to 2001 and later information minister, until 2003. Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's deputy was from the Shabak community—a small, quasi-Shiite sect. In 1991, Saddam appointed Saadun Hammadi as the prime minister, a Shi'ite. He was later removed from his post due to reformist views, but was returned to his post as Speaker. 80% of the Iraqi Armed Forces were Shia Muslim.

Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq. Tariq Aziz, an ethnic Iraqi Assyrian and member of the Chaldean Catholic minority, was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party. Michel Aflaq, the founder of Ba'athism, was also a Christian. Cardinal Fernando Filoni, who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country. In 2003, Pope John Paul II visited Saddam in March 2003 and addressed the message for peace.

Armenians in Iraq obeyed the law of the government. As a result of Saddam's modernization efforts, the Armenian community flourished and prospered. Before 2003, there were 100,000 Armenians in Iraq. Saddam's nanny was an Iraqi–Armenian, along with one of his body guards, his jeweler, tailor, and housestaff. During the war with Iran, when the Kurds fled to avoid military service, Armenians went to fight for Iraq. Many Armenians also fought for Saddam during the Gulf War, where three of them were killed.

Although his position on Kurdish politics has been debated. Saddam has allowed autonomy for Kurds to an extent, with Kurds being allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions. Kurds in Iraq were also able to elect a Kurdish representative to Baghdad with the KDP being legitimized as a legal progressive party in Iraq. Saddam had already signed a autonomy agreement in 1970, but Mustafa Barzani eventually disagreed with the deal, which incited the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as Iran, Turkey, and Syria, Iraqi Kurds were treated well under the regime of Saddam when compared to their conditions in those countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated under Saddam in education, and media, and spoken as a official language. Saddam had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with the highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan —one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents. He was also made Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party and commander of the People's Army. Another Kurd was Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf, one of the vice presidents and served as ambassador to Italy, Malta, and Albania. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq.

During his rule, Iraq retained a substantial Jewish community, numbering around 15,000 people. Saddam took measures to protect Jews in Iraq, appointed a Jewish representative in the government and helped in restoration of Meir Taweig Synagogue and construction a new cemetery for Jews in Baghdad. A Jewish chemist, from Basra, Ibrahim Hesqel was sent by Saddam on a trade mission to China in 1988. Shaul Sassoon, a Jewish engineer, was the Technical Head and Expert of state-owned enterprises under the Ministry of Industry. In 1998, on the day of Jewish festival of Sukkot, a Palestinian entered the Baghdad Jewish Heaquarters and shot four people to death, including two Jews. The attacker was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack. He also said that: "Anyone who hurt the Jews in Baghdad would pay a heavy price". He reportedly helped an estimated 150 remaining Jews, allowing many to leave the country in early years.

Saddam was also recognized for safeguarding the Mandaean minority in Iraq. Mandaeans were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans". The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on land donated by the Ministry of Finance. Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received.

Foreign policies

In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East. Because Saddam rarely left Iraq, Tariq Aziz, one of his aides, traveled abroad extensively and represented Iraq at many diplomatic meetings.

Saddam enjoyed a close relationship with Russian intelligence agent Yevgeny Primakov that dated back to the 1960s; Primakov may have helped Saddam to stay in power in 1991. Saddam visited only two Western countries. The first visit took place in December 1974, when the Caudillo of Spain, Francisco Franco, invited him to Madrid and he visited Granada, Córdoba and Toledo. In September 1975 he met with Prime Minister Jacques Chirac in Paris.

He was quite supportive of Tunisia. Saddam sent excellent quality books to school students in Tunisia and built a college dorm in Sousse.

He was one of the first Arab leaders to support Morocco's autonomy plan in the disputed territory of Western Sahara.

Iraq War

Statue of Saddam being toppled in Firdos Square, 9 April 2003

Many members of the international community, especially the United States, continued to view Saddam as a bellicose tyrant who was a threat to the stability of the region. In his January 2002 state of the union address to Congress, President George W. Bush spoke of an "axis of evil" consisting of Iran, North Korea, and Iraq. Moreover, Bush announced that he would possibly take action to topple the Iraqi government, because of the threat of its weapons of mass destruction. Bush stated that "The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade ... Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror."

After the passing of UNSC Resolution 1441, which demanded that Iraq give "immediate, unconditional and active cooperation" with UN and IAEA inspections, Saddam allowed UN weapons inspectors led by Hans Blix to return to Iraq. During the renewed inspections beginning in November 2002, Blix found no stockpiles of WMD and noted the "proactive" but not always "immediate" Iraqi cooperation as called for by Resolution 1441.

With war still looming on 24 February 2003, Saddam took part in an interview with CBS News reporter Dan Rather. Talking for more than three hours, he denied possessing any weapons of mass destruction, or any other weapons prohibited by UN guidelines. He also expressed a wish to have a live televised debate with George W. Bush, which was declined. It was his first interview with an American reporter in over a decade. CBS aired the taped interview later that week. Saddam later told an FBI interviewer that he once left open the possibility that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction in order to appear strong against Iran.

The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks of the beginning of the US-led 2003 invasion of Iraq on 20 March. By the beginning of April, US-led forces occupied much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which purported to show him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to US-led forces on 9 April, marked symbolically by the toppling of his statue, Saddam was nowhere to be found.

Personal life

Saddam developed a reputation for liking expensive goods, such as his diamond-coated Rolex wristwatch, and sent copies of them to his friends around the world. To his ally Kenneth Kaunda Saddam once sent a Boeing 747 full of presents—rugs, televisions, ornaments.

On 28 April 2001, Saddam celebrated his birthday, in form of a mega event.

See ==

He initiated the Iran–Iraq War, which lasted from 198o to 1988, until a ceasefire and was ended in stalemate. During the war, he retaliated the Kurdish uprisings in Anfal Campaign at the end of the war. Saddam accused Kuwait of stealing Iraq's oil reserves and invaded it in 1990, annexing as Iraq's 19th governorate, starting the Gulf War. The war ended in coalition forces victory. After that relations between Iraq and U.S deteriorated, who later adopted policy to support overthrow of Saddam in 1998. Saddam suppressed 1991 uprisings. He later attempt to negotiate with Kurds and intervened in Kurdish Civl War. Iraq suffered economic decline as a result of sanctions as a result of invasion of kuwait. the economy began improving in 2000 and iraq was rebuilding relations with arab and muslim countries.

in 2003, united states-led coaltion invaded iraq, accusing saddam of possessing weapons of mass destructions and having links with al-qaeda, who were responsible for september 11 attacks. within weeks of invasion, the coation forces occupied much of iraq and captured baghad, where saddam had overthrown. he was captured and interrogated, after which he was handed over to the iraqi tribual court, where he was tried and sentenced to death of 1982 dujail massacre. he was executed by hanging on 30 december 2006, the eve of eid al adha, a move condemned internationally, as it was on such as holy day.